Theseus in Greek mythology

In Greek mythology Theseus was one of the greatest Greek heroes,although his fame is perhaps overshadowed by that of Heracles and Perseus. In legend though Theseus was once the King of ancient Athens, and lived a life full of adventure.

The story of Theseus starts in Athens. Aegeus, the King of Athens, wished for a son to follow him as ruler of the city. An unclear prophecy from the Oracle of Delphi seemed to indicate that he should find a woman from Athens, but Aegeus wanted some clarification. Aegeus visited the wise King Pittheus of Troezen, a small city state to the south-west of Athens, to gain his interpretation. Pittheus understood the meaning of the prophecy, but tricked Aegeus to take Aethra, Pittheus’ daughter, as his companion.

After having slept with Aegeus, Aethra waded through to the sea to the island of Sphairia, where she slept with the god Poseidon. Theseus, when born, was said to be a mix of the semen of the mortal and immortal.

Aegeus decided to return to Athens, leaving the now pregnant Aethra behind. He left behind his sandals and sword, burying them below a large rock. If Aethra bore Aegeus a son, then he was to be sent to Athens when he was strong enough to move the rock and claim his inheritance. Aegeus was afraid that unless he had an heir, one of his fifty nephews, the sons of Pallas, would take ultimate power in Athens.

Aethra, of course, gave birth to Theseus. Theseus was raised in Troezen, and was taught by King Pittheus. Theseus grew up to be a brave, courageous and intelligent man, though he believed his one father to be Poseidon. Once he came of age, his mother showed him the rock and told him of his true parentage, and his right to claim his birthright. Theseus easily lifted the covering rock, and took the sandals and sword.

Theseus Discovering His Father's Sword - Antonio Balestra (1666–1740) - PD-art-100

Unbeknown to Theseus, the situation in Athens had changed; King Aegeus had found a new consort. Medea, the former wife of Jason, had left Corinth, after killing Jason’s new wife, and on arrival in Athens had wed Aegeus. Together they had one son, Medus.

The journey from Troezen to Athens could be made one of two ways; the safe sea route, or a dangerous walk around the Saronic Gulf. King Pittheus begged Theseus to take the safest route, but Theseus wanted to vanquish the robbers and murderers that travelled the roads. Theseus wanted to emulate the feats of his cousin, Hercules, and punish any bandit who crossed his path.

Theseus’ journey around the Saronic Gulf, would take him past the six entrances to the Underworld, where six notorious bandits were said to live. On his first day of travel, Theseus arrived at the Epidaurus entrance. At this entrance lived a violent bandit called Periphetes, who would use his club of iron to beat travellers into the earth. Theseus overcame Periphetes, and killed him. Theseus took his club and then used it as his own weapon. The second entrance was at Isthmian, where the robber Sinis lived. Sinis would capture passers-by, and then tie them between two pine trees. When the trees sprang apart they would rip the travellers in two. Theseus killed Sinis, in the same method, though he bent the pine trees without an artificial assistance, thus displaying his great strength. Theseus then raped Perigune, Sinis’ daughter, causing her to give birth to his child, Melanippus.

Theseus continued his walk around to Crommyon. There he killed an enormous pig, the Crommyonian sow, also known as Phaea. Some variations state that the sow was a very old, ugly and fierce female bandit. The fourth entrance was near Megara. An elderly robber, Sciron, killed travellers by throwing them over a sea cliff as they knelt down to was his feet. Theseus threw Sciron over the same cliff.

At Eleusis, Theseus faced Cercyon. Cercyon would challenge any travellers who passed by to a wrestling match. When he had beaten them, he would then kill them. Again Theseus showed his natural strength, and killed Cercyon in a wrestling match. The sixth and final bandit that Theseus faced was Procrustes. Procrustes would offer travellers his bed; he would make each traveller fit into his bed either by stretching them, or by cutting off their feet. Theseus killed Procrustes in his own bed, though it is not clear whether he was stretched or had his feet cut off.

In all of Theseus’ encounters, he dispatched the villains in the same manner as they had dispatched their victims.

His roadside adventures over, Theseus arrived in Athens, though he did not immediately disclose his identity. Medea, King Aegeus’ new wife, recognised Theseus as a threat to her power. Aegeus himself was also suspicious of the intentions of the stranger in his court. As such Theseus was set a quest to capture the Marathonian Bull. The Marathonian Bull was a symbol of Cretan strength, and thus Theseus was not expected to be able to catch the beast.

Theseus, of course succeeds, in capturing the Bull and returns to Athens victorious. A huge celebratory banquet was held in his honour, where he sacrificed the Bull to Zeus or Apollo. Medea manages though to instil such uncertainty in the mind of Aegeus, who fearing for his won position, agrees to poison the new hero. As Theseus is about to drink from the poisoned goblet, Aegeus recognises the sandals and sword as his own. Aegeus saves his son from drinking the poison.

Aegeus announces Theseus as his son and heir to the Athenian people. The Athenians are more than happy to have Theseus as their prince, as in addition to the capture of the Marathonian Bull; his exploits on the road to Athens have also been known. With this announcement, Medea is exiled. Pallas and his fifty sons though revolt, Theseus manages to kill one group of sons, forcing Pallas and his remaining sons to retreat.

Theseus now had a secure position in Athens. Athens though was in a position of sub servitude to King Minos of Crete. Minos demanded a sacrifice of seven maidens and seven male youths, to be made every nine years to the Minotaur. The reason for servitude was due to Athens losing a war against Crete following the death of King Minos’ eldest son in Athens, and the proclamation of the Oracle of Delphi.

Theseus and Ariadne - Niccolò Bambini - PD-art-100

Theseus took the place of one of the youths, when the next lottery for sacrifice was held. Sailing in a ship with a black sail, Theseus promised his distraught father that he would return showing a white sail. On arrival in Crete, Ariadne, the daughter of King Minos, falls in love with Theseus. Ariadne gets Daedalus to supply a thread so that Theseus will not get lost in the Minotaur’s Labyrinth. Ariadne also supplies a sword to kill the Minotaur.

Theseus is successful in killing the Minotaur, and manages to escape from Crete with Ariadne and the other Athenian youths. There is some debate as to what happens to Ariadne. In some versions of the story she is abandoned on Naxos, as the goddess Minerva tells Theseus that Ariadne is to be Bacchus’ bride. Other versions say Ariadne commits suicide after being abandoned. Some versions state that she stayed with Theseus and died in childbirth, or was successful in bearing two children for the hero.

The first version leads the most easily into further tales. Theseus as he returns to Athens is so upset by his forced separation from Ariadne that he forgets to replace the black sails with white ones. King Aegeus on observing a black sail believes his son is dead and commits suicide, drowning in the sea which became the Aegean in his honour. Aegeus ensures that Theseus becomes King of Athens in tragic circumstances.

As king, Theseus organised Athens and Attica into a city state. Theseus also brought in democracy, with a promise to end the rule of the monarchy. In bringing democracy, Theseus ensured that Athens became the central location of government, getting rid of all of the local courts and administration centres. The aristocracy was put in charge of religion and the law.

Theseus also introduced a class system; the nobles, the farmers and the craftsmen. Foreigners were also welcomed and given the same rights as Athenians. The farmers became wealthier; the nobles received greater prestige, whilst the craftsmen became more numerous.

Away from the daily running of Athens, Theseus also introduced the Isthmian Games in honour of Poseidon, as a way of providing entertainment to the populous.

Whilst Theseus was good at organising the city, his heart was still that of a hero, and was always on the look out for adventure. Theseus’ best friend was the Lapith prince Pirithous; they had once met in battle before becoming brothers-in-arms as they hunted the Calydonian Boar. Pirithous was to marry Hippodamia, or Deidama, and Theseus attended the wedding ceremony. At the subsequent feast, the guest centaurs got drunk and attempted to molest and abduct the women present. A battle ensued in which Theseus sided with Pirithous and the Lapiths against the centaurs.

Later on, when Theseus had advanced to fifty years of age, Theseus and Pirithous set out to Sparta in search of daughters of Zeus to marry. Helen, though only a young girl, was abducted by the pair, and sent to Athens. Theseus won a bet to decide that he was the one to marry Helen when she came of age, that though left them searching for a bride for Pirithous.

Pirithous set his heart on marrying Persephone; unfortunately she inhabited the underworld with her husband Hades. On arrival Hades offered them hospitality but recognising their deceit, Hades ensured that the stone they sat on trapped them. Theseus was luckily rescued by Heracles during his twelfth task, although Pirithous was left in the underworld for all eternity.

Theseus has got a reputation for the abduction of women. A war between Athens and the Amazon nation started when Theseus abducted the Amazon queen, Antiope. The Amazon’s fought hard, battling all their way to Athens, before besieging the city for four months. The final battle in which Theseus is said to have been victorious, is supposed to have occurred within the city walls. After the final battle a peace treaty was signed.

There are other tales involving Theseus, many of which do not put him in the best light. Theseus is said to have killed his son Hippolytus, after it was alleged that he had raped his step-mother.
On a more positive note, Theseus also fathered Acamas, who fought in the Trojan war. Theseus is shown at his best though when he assists Adrastus bury the other Seven’, as in Seven against Thebes, after the final battle for the throne of Thebes.

Theseus returned to Athens to find that the city had changed in his absence. Menestheus, an Athenian noble, had stirred up the populous against the king. The Spartans, with Helen’s brothers, Castor and Pollux, are invited into the city, whereupon they removed Helen. Theseus was also at a disadvantage as he was not born in Athens, and therefore a foreigner. Theseus loses any desire to rule Athens again and so in a self imposed exile Theseus sails away to Scyros, leaving Menestheus to take over as king.
In the court of King Lycomedes, Theseus found himself welcomed. The king though later throws him off a cliff in an act of treachery. In Athens his death was hardly even noted.

Even in death, the story of Theseus is not over. At the Battle of Marathon in 490BC, Athenian soldiers claimed to have seen Theseus leading them against the Persians. As a result the Oracle of Delphi commanded the Athenians to retrieve their king’s body. It took fifteen years though, as Scryos was hostile to Athens at the time. Eventually General Cimon took Scyros and discovered the coffin of Theseus. Larger in size than that of a normal man, the coffin was returned to Athens and deposited in the Theseum temple.

How much fact there is in the mythology surrounding Theseus is debatable. There are records that suggest a king united the tribes of Attica and Athens into one city state. There was a festival of Panathenaea to commemorate this, which is recorded upon the Elgin Marbles’. There is also much evidence that the battles with the Amazons occurred. Theseus is also credited in initiating many of the Athenian traditions. There is much depiction of Theseus and his adventures on the vases and jars that survive from that time period. What ever the truth Theseus is central to some of the core Greek heroic tales.

Copyright - First Published 4th March 2008

Daedalus in Greek mythology

Daedalus was the most skilled of all artisans of ancient Greece. So skilled in fact that he is credited with the invention of images themselves. Daedalus was a master craftsman, inventor and architect, whose skill is now legendary.

The original stories point to Daedalus being a Cretan character, but as the dominance of Athens grew, so he became an Athenian. The change of nationality does cause some confusion in the timeline of events, though the stories will be told in Athenian order. Even then there are variations of the story.

The Athenian Daedalus became the son of Metion and therefore the grandson of the ancient king Erechtheus. His mother, though, is never clearly defined, and at various times Merope and Iphinoe are both named. Daedalus grew up to be a brilliant architect and sculptor; his statues in particular brought him widespread fame. Before Daedalus, statues were sculpted such that their arms were fixed to the sides of the body. Daedalus carved them in more natural poses, and is on occasion credited with providing them with the power of movement.

Statue of Daedalus - Jordiferrer - CC-BY-SA-3.0

For a time Daedalus had an apprentice, his nephew Perdix, or Talos depending on the version. From an early age Perdix showed immense skill, inventing the saw and compass. Daedalus feared for his own reputation if the skill of his apprentice passed his own. This jealousy resulted in Daedalus throwing Perdix from the Acropolis. Daedalus was tried for murder by the Areopagus, the ancient Athens court, and as punishment he was banished from the city.

In some versions of the story Perdix did not die, but was saved by the goddess Minerva and turned into the partridge. As a result of his experiences, the partridge will not build a nest in the trees and avoids high places.

Daedalus, though, was forced to leave Athens, and eventually found employment with King Minos on the island of Crete. One of his first jobs was for the king’s wife Pasiphae. Poseidon had given King Minos a white bull to be used as a sacrifice; Minos though had kept the bull for himself. As an act of vengeance, Poseidon made Pasiphae lust after the Cretan bull. To aid in the mating process Daedalus constructed a hollow wooden cow for Pasiphae.

The result of the mating was the birth of the Minotaur, a creature half-man and half-bull. Minos, not wanting the illegitimate offspring in the palace, ordered Daedalus to build a labyrinth in which to contain the Minotaur. The Labyrinth at Knossos was the most complex ever built: an infinite number of passages would cross over each other, whilst there seemed to be no start or end to the maze. It was said that it was so complicated that even Daedalus had trouble getting out of it after he had constructed it. Once the Minotaur was imprisoned, King Minos demanded an annual tribute of Athenian youths to feed the beast.

The story of Daedalus then mixes with that of the hero Theseus. Theseus arrives on Crete in order to kill the Minotaur, and stop the annual tributes. Theseus falls for Ariadne, the daughter of Minos and Pasiphae, and she falls for him. Ariadne therefore seeks out the assistance of Daedalus, who provides a thread with which Theseus can guide himself out of the Labyrinth, after slaying the Minotaur.

Daedalus and Icarus - Pyotr Ivanovich Sokolov (1753—1791) - PD-art-100

King Minos is of course outraged at the loss of his annual tribute, the killing of the Minotaur and the departure of Ariadne. Realising the treachery of Daedalus, Minos incarcerates him, and his son Icarus, in his workshop. In some versions Daedalus is locked in the Labyrinth, although if anyone could escape from it surely the creator would be the most obvious. The workshop, though, is in a room that looks down on the Cretan countryside, and so Daedalus looks for a means to escape.

Daedalus realises that King Minos controls the land and sea; so instead he looks to the air for an escape route. Daedalus builds wings for himself and Icarus. Fabricated from bird feathers, wings were built in the style of a bird wing. Daedalus used thread to secure the largest feathers, whilst the smallest ones were kept together with wax. Trials eventually saw Daedalus able to suspend himself by beating the wings fixed to his arms. Teaching Icarus how to fly, Daedalus added a warning about not flying too high or too low. Too high would see the heat of the sun melt the wax, whilst too low would see the feathers become wet from the sea and would not work.

After practice attempts, Daedalus and Icarus escaped from Crete. Together they passed Samos, Delos and Lebynthos. Icarus, though, became over confident, and attempted to fly up into the heavens. As he got closer to the god Helios, the sun, the wax holding many of the feathers together melted, causing Icarus to crash into the sea and drown. The place where he drowned was named Icaria in his honour. Grieving for the loss of his son, Daedalus continued his escape, arriving safely at the court of King Cocalus in Camicus, in Sicily. To honour the gods, Daedalus built a temple to Apollo and hung up his wings.

King Minos was not happy at losing the great artisan, and sought to bring him back to Crete. Minos searched from city to city. In each city Minos would offer a reward to whoever could run a thread through a spiral seashell, knowing that Daedalus would be the only person who could solve such a puzzle. When Minos arrived in Camicus, King Cocalus took the puzzle to Daedalus. Daedalus tied the thread to an ant and then used honey to lure the ant through the shell.

Solving the puzzle, though, betrayed Daedalus’ presence, and Minos demanded his return. King Cocalus agreed to do so, and convinced Minos to take a bath and then partake of some entertainment. Whilst he was in the bath, Cocalus’ daughters murdered Minos. The daughters had no desire to lose the inventor of their numerous amusing gifts.

With all of his inventions and artisan skills, Daedalus became a key figure in Greek mythology. Even in modern times his name is still associated with any master craftsman.

Copyright - First Published 1st March 2008

Medusa in Greek Mythology

Medusa is one of the best known villainesses from Greek mythology, and is one of the most recognisable characters to appear in the stories of Ancient Greece. Most people today will recognise Medusa as a Gorgon, and someone who can turn people into stone, just by having them look into her eyes.

There is a lot more to the story of Medusa than most people are aware of though, and her story actually commences when she is wronged by the gods of Mount Olympus.

Medusa - Arnold Böcklin, circa 1878 - PD-art-100

Unlike other stories from Ancient Greece, the storyline of Medusa is fairly straightforward, and has relatively few of the variations that often make Greek mythological stories difficult to understand. Much of the story is taken from Hesiod, although Medusa is also mentioned by Homer.

In Greek mythology Medusa was the offspring of the ancient line of gods, being the daughter of Phorcys and Ceta. Phorcys and Ceto were children of Gaia (Earth) and Oceanus (Ocean), and so predated the Olympian gods. Despite being mortal, Medusa had two immortal sisters, Sthenno and Euryale, who combined, made up the three Gorgons.

In her youth, Medusa was a beautiful woman, with long flowing hair that attracted many suitors. Medusa’s role in the ancient world was to act as a priestess in the temple of Athena.

The sea god Poseidon saw Medusa at work in the temple, and overcome with her beauty raped her. Athena observed the rape, and outraged at the sacrilege of her temple, punished Medusa by turning her long hair into snakes, and ensuring that anyone who looked on her new ugliness directly would turn into stone.

As with many such tales it is the mortal who were blamed for any transgression undertaken by a god.
There is one competing version of events that sees Medusa cursed for attempting to compete with Athena about who was more beautiful. In this version, Medusa argued with Athena, and claimed that the goddess was jealous of her, the mortal Medusa. There is an argument over whether Medusa was made ugly, or whether she retained her beauty, and it was her sorrowful look and snakes that caused the petrification of observers.

Head of Medusa - Unknown - PD-art-100

This could well have been the end of Medusa’s story, and the Gorgon could have lived out her days in her cavern with her sisters; but the story of Medusa would then be intertwined with that of the Greek hero Perseus.

Perseus required the head of Medusa, to aid his quest of rescuing his mother, Danae, from King Polydectes of Seriphus. With the assistance of the gods, Athena, who provided her reflective shield, and Hermes, who gave Perseus the magical winged sandals, Perseus embarked on his adventure.
Perseus first had to get information from the Graeae, the three grey women, who were additional sisters of Medusa. The Graeae had but one eye and one tooth between them, so Perseus took the eye and kept it until the Graeae told Perseus everything he required.

With the information obtained, Perseus made his way to Medusa’s cavern. There he found the stony figures of men and animals who had gazed upon the Gorgon. Perseus managed to get close to Medusa by using Athena’s shield as a mirror, therefore avoiding a direct gaze. Medusa was then beheaded.

Medusa was pregnant by Poseidon, and from her decapitated body the winged horse Pegasus, and the giant Chrysaor were born. Subsequently, Pegasus was used by Bellerophon in his adventures, whilst Chrysaor became the King of Iberia.

Even in death, Medusa still had a role to play in Greek mythology. Though the remaining Gorgons chased after Perseus, they were unable to catch him.

Perseus and Andromeda - Henri-Pierre Picou (1824–1895) - PD-art-100

As he flew over the Red Sea, blood from the decapitated head dripped creating the sea’s coral. Perseus also used Medusa’s head as a weapon and rescued Andromeda from Cetes, a sea monster ravaging Ethiopia.

Some writers also claimed that Perseus used the head of Medusa to turn the Titan Atlas into stone, creating the Atlas Mountains. As Atlas was very much alive when Heracles, Perseus’ descendant saw him, this story is somewhat contrived.

Perseus made one final use of the head, rescuing his mother from an imminent wedding; Perseus turned all those present, aside form his mother, into stone.

With the quest completed, Medusa’s head was passed from Perseus to the goddess Athena, who placed it on her Aegis, her shield, to be used when the goddess fought.

There are some similarities between Medusa and the goddess Hera. The worship of both female deities predates the creation of the Mount Olympus gods; prior to the rise of ancient Greece, Medusa was worshiped in Africa as a serpent goddess. The importance of many female deities, including Hera and Medusa, decreased with the arrival of the Hellanes people in Greece; and the more male dominated religion of the Olympian gods took precedence.

Nevertheless, the female Medusa is today far more famous than many of the male deities of the Greek pantheon.

Copyright - First Published 28th February 2008

The Heroine Atalanta in Greek Mythology

Atalanta is one of the few heroines from Greek mythology. In general tales from ancient Greece are a mixture of gods and goddesses, both male and female, whilst the status of hero is almost always a male domain. Atalanta appears in a number of stories, although as with the majority of Greek mythological stories, there are a number of different versions. The differing versions may indicate two heroines of the same name, though there is also a presumption that there is only one.

Atalanta was the daughter of either King Iasus and Clymene, or Schoeneus of Boeotia. The father though desired a son so much that on her birth she was taken into woodland and abandoned to her fate. Instead of death though, Atalanta survives and the goddess, Artemis, sent a female bear to suckle her. A group of hunters eventually find her and raised her as one of their own.

Atalanta and the Calydonian Boar - Peter Paul Rubens - PD-art-100

Growing up amongst the hunters, Atalanta soon comes to love the hunt, and begins to compete amongst the males of the group. By the time she reaches womanhood, Atalanta is the best at many of the male preserves, including hunting, running and wrestling. Growing up against men, though also saw Atalanta have no desire for a partner, in fact she received an oracle that her marriage would end in disaster.

As a notable athlete, Atalanta’s name appears on some lists of those who travelled with Jason on the Argo. Whilst in some tales, Jason refused Atalanta passage, fearing a woman on board would result in problems, other versions see Atalanta fighting with Jason at the battle of Colchis.

After the quest for the Golden Fleece, Atalanta participated in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar. King Oeneus ordered his son, Meleager, a fellow Argonaut, to round up as many heroes as he could to kill the Boar. During the hunt, Meleager fell in love with Atalanta, and Atalanta fell in love with him, although she refused his marriage proposal. During the hunt Atalanta was also made to defend her virtue, killing two centaurs, Rhoecus and Hylaeus, who had attempted to rape her.

Atalanta was credited in drawing first blood with one of animals during the hunt, although it was Meleager who killed the boar. Rather than keeping the hide of the boar as was his right, Meleager awarded the hide to Atalanta. This caused resentment amongst the other hunters, especially with Meleager’s uncles, Toxeus and Plexippus. Meleager killed both of his uncles when the protested about the award of the pelt. This though resulted in more bloodshed, as Meleager’s mother killed her son, by throwing an enchanted log into a fire, the log representing Meleager’s life.

With the love of her life now dead, Atalanta returned to her father, be it Iasus or Schoeneus, who now had a daughter to be proud of. Her father then sought to do his duty in finding his daughter a husband. Atalanta though had no desire to be married, seeing it as a betrayal of Meleager, and also heading the warnings of the Oracle or marital disaster. Atalanta designed a test to aid her avoid marriage, Atalanta would only marry a suitor who could beat her in a foot race, if any suitor failed in the test they would be executed. Atalanta believed that suitors would be put off as she was known as one of the fastest of all mortals. Atalanta’s beauty though was enticing and soon many suitors had been outrun and executed.

Atalanta and Hippomenes - Willem van Herp - PD-art-100

Then a suitor called Melanion, also known as Hippomenes, fell in love with Atalanta. Knowing though he could not beat Atalanta in a fair foot race, Melanion prayed to the goddess Aphrodite for assistance. Aphrodite in her weakness for lovers provided Melanion with three golden apples, or quince, and a plan to win. During the race when Atalanta was ahead, Melanion was to role an apple to distract Atalanta. As Atalanta stopped to pick up the apple, Melanion would overtake and eventually with the role of the last apple, Melanion won the race and Atalanta’s hand in marriage.

Melanion though forgot to sacrifice to Aphrodite for his success, and the angered goddess sought her revenge. The newly married couple of Atalanta and Melanion, sought to consummate their marriage, and Aphrodite tricked them into giving into their desires in a shrine to Zeus. An outraged Zeus turned the lovers into lions, a poetic punishment as Greek believed that lions could only mate with leopards and not their own species.

The only mystery surrounding Atalanta is that she bore a son, though still apparently a virgin. Atalanta bore a son, Parthenopeus, though the father is not known, Meleager and Melanion were with Atalanta for only short periods of time. The father is therefore often credited to be the god Ares. Embarrassed by the illegitimate son, Atalanta abandoned the child just as her father had deserted her, though Parthenopeus grew up to be a hero just like his mother.

Copyright - First Published 27th February 2008

The God Hermes in Greek Mythology

Hermes is one of the most well known gods from the pantheon of Greek mythology. Given the role of messenger of the gods, Hermes would subsequently appear in many stories of gods and mortals. Generally considered to be one of the more lenient and “good” gods, and as such he is rarely portrayed with having the vengefulness of others within the Greek pantheon.

Hermes is a god of many accolades; trickster, thief, and guide being just a few. Hermes is also the god of travellers and boundaries, shepherds and cowherds, literature, athletics, invention, weights and measures, commerce, and of thieves and liars.

Hermes - Peter Paul Rubens - PD-art-100

Hermes was the son of Zeus, who partnered Maia, a mountain nymph, and a daughter of the Titan Atlas. Zeus impregnated Maia in the middle of the night, whilst the other gods slept, and before dawn Hermes was born. Maia gave birth to Hermes in a cave on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia.

As a newborn, Hermes got his first chance to be a prankster and thief, and by nightfall of his first day alive he had travelled to Thessaly and rustled the immortal cattle of his brother, Apollo. Hiding the cattle in a small grotto, Hermes started back to his mother. Before returning though he saw a tortoise, and immediately saw the opportunity of its shell as a musical instrument, using the shell and the intestines of a cow, Hermes created the first Lyre. The first evidence that Hermes was indeed the cleverest of the gods, as was later claimed.

Apollo was not amused when he found he had been robbed, and promptly accused Hermes. Hermes’ mother though provided Hermes an alibi, believing that he had been in the cave all night. Zeus, though intervened having watched the whole thing, and told Hermes he was to return the cattle. Hermes during the argument had taken up his lyre and started to play, enchanted by the music, Apollo, agreed to an exchange of his cattle for the lyre, which became one of his symbols. Later on Hermes also invented the pan-pipes and flute as he watched over his new cattle. Again Apollo desired these instruments and traded his golden wand with Hermes.

Zeus gave Hermes the role of messenger of the gods. In this role Hermes delivered messages from Mount Olympus to both mortals and immortals. Hermes was given this vital role because as well as being the fastest of all gods, Zeus saw him as being the most loyal. As a messenger Hermes also served as a psycho-pomp, a guide for the dead souls on there way to the underworld, and was one of the few gods, other than Hades, who could enter and leave as he wished. Hermes is traditionally portrayed wearing a winged cap and winged sandals, and carrying his herald’s staff (the kerykeion). As befitted a guide to the lost souls, Hermes would wear the garments of a traveller, and carry a purse or pouch.

As a messenger to mortals, Hermes helped them out, assisting travellers on their journeys. Hermes would also give gifts to man, in some stories he gave fire, he introduced the musical scale, astronomy, dice, weights and measure as well as all the arts. As the fastest of the gods, it is of no surprise that Hermes is also credited in introducing many sports including gymnastics, boxing and athletics.

Hermes/Mercury - Evelyn de Morgan - PD-art-100

As befits one of the twelve main Olympians, there are numerous tales about Hermes, and as always with Greek tales there are different versions of the same tale. It was Hermes who assisted Perseus in his quest to face the Gorgon Medusa, providing him with Hermes’ own winged sandals. In addition Hermes also loaned Perseus a helmet of invisibility, which enabled Perseus to avoid the Medusa’s sisters.

Hermes was always considered the most loyal to Zeus, and to back this image, it was Hermes who retrieved Zeus’ tendons from Typhon. In addition when the giants revolted against Mount Olympus, Hermes donned the helmet of invisibility to defeat the giant Hippolytus. As the messenger of the gods Hermes would appear in a number of tales, and it was Hermes who Zeus sent to speak to Prometheus about a prophecy of rebellion against Zeus.

Hermes’ loyalty is also displayed in the tale of Io, the lover of Zeus. Io was turned into a cow, before Hera, the wife of Zeus, had the giant Argos guard the heifer. It was Hermes who slew the one hundred eye giant, after lulling Argos to sleep with his flute; Hermes used his sword to decapitate the giant, thus allowing Io to wander the world. The eyes of Argos were then set upon the plumage of the peacock by Hera.

Hermes also appears frequently in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. According to Homer it was Hermes who guided King Priam through the Greek forces in order to retrieve the body of Hector, his son. In the Odyssey, it is Hermes who is sent by Zeus, to tell Calypso to let Odysseus go, and later Hermes assists Odysseus himself, providing antidotes to ensure the release of Odysseus shipmates from the goddess Circe.

Hermes, gained many nicknames by his actions, most famously he was Argeiphontes, the slayer of Argus, and Logios, the orator. But in addition he was known as; Dolios, the schemer; Epimelius, the keeper of flocks; Eriounios, luck bringer; and Pschopompos, conveyor of souls.

It is perhaps not surprising that as one of the original phallic gods, associated with fertility, Hermes was credited with a large number of offspring following liaisons with a number of mortals, goddesses and nymphs. Many of his offspring have their own roles in Greek mythology and are far too numerous to list all of them, though four of the more notable ones are Pan, Abderus, Hermaphroditus and Eros.

Hermes and Argus - Jacob Jordaens - PD-art-100

Pan was the half man, half goat son of Hermes and Dryope. Dryope is said to have ran from the sight of her son when he was born, at which point Pan was taken to Mount Olympus. The gods so loved Pan’s laughter and appearance that he was given the role of patron to the fields, the shepherds and their flocks.

Abderus, was the companion of Heracles, before he was devoured by the Mares of Diomedes during Heracles’ eighth task.

Hermaphroditus was the son of Hermes and the goddess Aphrodite, though raised by the water nymphs on Mount Ida. Hermaphroditus was changed into an intersex person, when the gods granted the nymph Salmacis’ wish, that they would never be separated.

In some stories, Hermes was also the father of Eros, the winged god of love, again produced with the goddess Aphrodite, although Ares and Hephaestus have been cited as the father as well.

As the friend of mortals, it is not surprising that Hermes was widely worshipped throughout Greece. The cult of Hermes though was especially prevalent in Arcadia, where Hermoea festivals would be held in his honour. Many Greeks would sacrifice before making any journey, in order that their trip would be without incident.

Even today Hermes has not completely disappeared, the Greek post office use an image of Hermes as their symbol. In popular culture Hermes also makes appearances, and in the television series of “Wonder Woman” it was Hermes, who provided the gift of super speed and unaided flight.

Copyright - First Published 26th February 2008

The Titan Atlas in Greek mythology

For over two millennia the stories of Greek mythology have been used to educate and entertain. The daring acts of Greek heroes, and the adventures of the Olympian gods, have fulfilled the dreams of many a reader.

Every hero though needs an antagonist to fight, and as such there are many villains that are also written about. Atlas is one of these villains, Atlas was neither a mortal nor an Olympian god; in fact he was a Titan and an enemy of Zeus.

Atlas - BellaMatt91 - BB-BY-SA-3.0

Atlas was a second-generation Titan; as such he was the son of the Titans Iapetus and Clymene, (or sometimes the Oceanid Asia), and had three brothers, Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus.
In the Golden Age, twelve original Titans, under Kronos, had ruled the heavens as Elder Gods. Zeus though sought to usurp his father’s power. Firstly Zeus freed his siblings, including Hades and Poseidon, from the stomach of Kronos and then commanded the Olympians in war against the Titans.
It was during this rebellion that the name of Atlas first emerged.

Atlas, along with Menoetius, sided with Kronos, whilst his other brothers, Prometheus and Epimetheus, allied themselves with Zeus. Atlas was widely recognised as being the strongest of the Titans, and with Kronos being of advanced age, Atlas was given the role of battlefield leader.

The Titanomachy, the war against the Olympians, did not go well and the Titans were ultimately defeated after ten years of fighting. Most of the male Titans were confined by Zeus to the depths of Tartarus, but because of his prominent role in the fighting, Atlas was singled out for special punishment. Zeus condemned Atlas to stand on the western edges of the earth, to hold the heavens on his shoulders and to ensure that the stars turned on their axis for all eternity.

From this point of rough agreement there follows a series of stories involving Atlas in Greek mythology that diverge in such a way that they cannot all stand side by side.

Atlas and Heracles - Anon. C1550 - PD-art-100

The most famous story involves the meeting of Heracles and Atlas.

As one of Heracles’ Twelve Labours, Heracles needed to get the Golden Apples that grew in the garden of Hera. Heracles was advised by Prometheus to send Atlas to retrieve the apples, as the garden was tended by Atlas’ daughters the Hesperides. To allow this to occur, Heracles offered to hold the heavens.

Atlas collected the apples, then saw Heracles as a ready-made substitute for himself for eternity, and therefore offered to deliver the apples himself. Heracles saw through the lie, and tricked Atlas to take the heavens again, claiming he needed to adjust his cloak as padding.

Even with this popular story there are different versions, and in one, Heracles is credited for releasing Atlas, and then building the Pillars of Heracles to hold the heavens in the Titan’s place.

The second most popular story containing Atlas, concerns Perseus, and is a tale that could not have occurred if the adventure of Heracles had done so.

Perseus, was the great-grandfather of Heracles, and had encountered Atlas in his wanderings. Atlas annoyed Perseus by attempting to drive him off and refused him hospitality, at which point Perseus revealed the head of Medusa causing Atlas to turn to stone. Of course Atlas was not stone by the time Heracles came along.

Atlas and the Celestial Sphere - Guercino (1591–1666) - PD-art-100

The multitude of stories involving Atlas makes it appear that there may be more than one Atlas, Plato names the first king of Atlantis as a mortal Atlas. Whilst in other stories there is a mythical king of Mauretania, who was also called Atlas. The Titan Atlas can though be reconciled as the god who gave the gift of astronomy to man, as the king of Arcadia and also of a kingdom in North-west Africa.

The stories though give rise to a number of offspring from Atlas, mothered by different goddesses. The Trojans are said to have been descendant of the Titan, from the Pleiadas, through the lineage of Dardanus. Other notable children included the Hesperidas and Calypso.

In addition to being intertwined in many Greek stories, the name of Atlas has transferred through to modern day.

Atlas is often depicted as a symbol of strength, kneeling on one knee with a globe on his back and shoulders. Over time the image may have been misinterpreted to show the globe as the earth, rather than a Celestial Sphere.

The name Atlas has now become interlinked with that of a book of maps, this though is another misconception. Gerardus Mercator, the 16th Century Flemish cartographer, named his book of maps after King Atlas, the mythical king of Mauretania, although it is the image of the Greek Atlas that is linked with the book.

Atlas has passed from myth into modern day symbolism for strength, within Greek mythology though he played a surprisingly prominent role for a non-Olympian, especially for one who was never in favour with Zeus.

Copyright - First Published 21st February 2008