The Hesperides in Greek Mythology

Most people think of Greek mythology simply in terms of heroes and Olympian gods. There was though a wider world in which heroes and gods lived, and it was a world inhabited by man, mythical creatures, monsters and other immortal figures. In the stories of Ancient Greece there were said to be thousands of immortals, including the female nymphs, the Hesperides.

Birth of the Hesperides

The genealogy of the Hesperides is one of the most confusing in Greek mythology, and almost every ancient writer who spoke on the matter, told of different parentage.

Hesiod is normally considered to be the first point to look when it comes to the genealogy of the gods, and in the Theogony, Hesiod names Nyx (night) as mother alone to the sisters. Hyginus would add a father, Erebus, alongside Nyx, whilst Virgil would name Zeus and Themis as parents.
Famously, Diodorus of Sicily, would name the Titan Atlas, along with Hesperus (the northern star), as parents to the Hesperides.

As well as confusing parentage, there is no real consensus about how many and who the Hesperides were. There are generally considered to be three Hesperides; three being the common figure amongst groupings of sisters like the Moirai or Graeae. At other times four or seven sisters might be counted.
In one possible ancient source, Hesiod would name the three sisters as Aigle, Erytheis and Hesperethoosa, but other sources would name Arethousa, Hesperie, Aerika, Asterope, Chrysothemis and Lipara as Hesperides.

The Garden of the Hesperides - Ricciardo Meacci (Italy, 1856 - 1900) - PD-art-100

The role of the Hesperides

The Hesperides were said to be goddesses of the evening, and were particularly associated with the sunset.

The Hesperides were given a specific role to play in Greek mythology, because the sisters were the guardians and the tenders of the Garden of Hera, also known as the Garden of the Hesperides. The garden was sacred to the goddess, and the orchard within it, was grown from the apples presented to Zeus and Hera by Gaia on their wedding day. From these original apples grew the ‘Trees of the Golden Apples’, and their fruit were the apples of immortality.

The fruit would be tempting prizes for any thief, and so Hera also placed Ladon, the hundred-headed dragon that never slept, in the garden with the Hesperides. The Garden of Hera was considered so secure that other gods also placed valuable items in the garden, including powerful weapons.

The location of the Garden of the Hesperides

Any potential thief would first have to locate the garden of the Hesperides, and the precise location was a well-guarded secret, known only to the various deities. The general location for the Garden of Hera was thought to be in the Western Mediterranean, in the region of Mount Olympus. This location also allowed other names to be linked to the Hesperides, including the “African Sisters”. There were plenty of other locations given for the Hesperides though, including further out into the realm of Oceanus.

The Hesperides - Albert Herter, 1898 - PD-life-70

Entering the Garden of the Hesperides

Entering the Garden of the Hesperides was no easy task, and there are only three famous tales of those who managed to gain access.

Eris – Eris, the goddess of Discord, was said to have entered and taken a golden apple, an apple that would start an argument amongst the goddesses about who was the most beautiful. This argument would be one of the starting points for the Trojan War. Eris, as a goddess, would know the location of the garden, and no details are given about how she actually took an apple without the guardians stopping her.

Perseus – Another visitor to the Garden of the Hesperides was said to be Perseus, although it is generally said he came not for apples, but for the weapons needed in his quest. Athena and Hermes were aiding his quest, and so it could be assumed that they accompanied the hero into the garden, to give him access to their own property.

Heracles – The Garden of the Hesperides though is most famous for appearing in the adventures of Heracles, and most notably the Eleventh Labour.

Heracles was not being aided by any deity at that time, and so had to find the location for himself; something he did by wrestling with Nereus, or by asking Prometheus for the information.

Knowing the location of the Garden of the Hesperides was only one issue though, entering it was a different problem. The most famous tale tells of how Heracles gained the assistance of Atlas, by holding up the heavens, whilst the Titan went and retrieved the apples. The task was thought to be easier for Atlas, as the Hesperides were his offspring. Atlas of course completed the task for Heracles, although the hero had to trick the god into taking the heavens back on his shoulders.

An alternative version of the story has Heracles himself enter the garden, kill Ladon, and retrieve the apples himself. Ultimately though, the apples would be returned by Athena after the task was completed.

In Greek mythology the apples that the Hesperides were guardians of were more important than the deities themselves.

The God Kronos in Greek Mythology

The mythology of Ancient Greece has survived thousands of years through into the modern day, and the tales and exploits of the Greek gods, and mortal heroes, are still known by millions of readers around the world. 

Most people though, only know of when the Olympian gods were ruling over the world from Mount Olympus, but in Greek mythology there was a time that predates the likes of Zeus, Hades and the other famous gods. This period was known as the “Golden Age”, and was a time when the Titans ruled the world, and the leader of the Titans was Kronos.

Kronos Wields Sickle Against Ouranus - Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) - PD-art-100

Kronos might also be known of as Cronus or Chronos, and as such translation from ancient Greek into modern English has created some confusion about the link of Chronos, the Titan, with Chronus, Father Time. It is of course not uncommon for different characters from Greek mythology to have the same name, but this article focuses on the leader of the Titans.

From the period of primordial deities came forth two who would be supreme rulers of the universe, Ouranos (sky) and Gaia (earth). The couple had various children together, including the three mighty Hecatonchires, and the three Cyclopes. 

Ouranos was worried about his position as supreme deity though, and had the Hecatonchires and Cyclopes imprisoned within Tartarus, in the depths of Gaia. Strangely though a third set of offspring, the 12 Titans, were not imprisoned. 

Gaia, angered by the imprisonment of her offspring, plotted against her husband, and created an adamantine sickle, with which he could be defeated. Of the 12 Titans though, only Kronos was willing to take up the sickle and use it against his father. 

The sickle was used by Kronos to castrate Ouranos; with the resulting blood causing the birth of the Gigantes, Meliae and Erinyes, whilst the fallen penis eventually turned into the goddess Aphrodite. The castrated Ouranos was powerless to prevent Kronos taking over, and so began the rule of the Titans, with Kronos in charge.

The Titans ruled in pairs, Kronos paired with the female Titan Rhea, whilst the other pairs were Oceanus and Tethys; Hyperion and Theia; Coeus and Phoebe; Mnemosyne and Themis; and Crius and Iapetus.

Kronos Imprisons His Child - Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) - PD-art-100

There are various tales about the rule of Kronos; some tell of peace and justice, others tell of a cruel and ruthless rule. The naming of the period as the “Golden Age”, indicates a bountiful period, and yet Cronus decided to keep his siblings the Cyclopes, Gigantes and Hecatonchires imprisoned in Tartarus.

The stories of later Greek mythology tend to display Kronos as a cruel ruler and Zeus as the righteous revengeful son. 

It is at this point that the stories of the Olympian gods commence. 

Kronos was told of a prophecy that foretold that history was to repeat itself, and that Kronos’ own offspring would rise up against him. 

Kronos and Rhea became parents to Demeter, Hera, Hades, Hestia, Poseidon and Zeus; but to prevent the prophecy from coming true, Kronos imprisoned each newborn within his own stomach. 

Just as the actions of Ouranos had angered Gaia, so the actions of Kronos angered Rhea.

So once Zeus, the sixth born child, was born, Rhea swapped him with a large stone, which Kronos swallowed in the place of Zeus. 

Zeus was hidden away in the Mount Ida cave on Crete. There he was raised at the hands of either a nymph known as Adamanthea, or a goat called Amalthea. Zeus was hidden away until he matured, and was strong enough to seek his revenge.

Zeus knew he needed allies though so sought the release of his siblings from the stomach of Kronos, and so Kronos was given a poison that made him regurgitate Demeter, Hera, Hades, Hestia and Poseidon

The prophecy of Kronos’s downfall was to come true as the Titanomachy started. 

The Titanomachy was the fight between the Titans and the forces led by Zeus. Kronos left much of the fighting of the ten-year war to younger Titans, under the leadership of Atlas. 

In general terms, the Titans were the stronger, but Zeus was clever enough to find himself allies.

Zeus released the Cyclopes, Gigantes and Hecatonchires from Tartarus. The Hecatonchires were giants with fifty arms and a hundred eyes who were able to throw whole mountains at the Titans. It was though the Cyclopes who played the major role in the battle, as it was they who forged the weapons for the Olympians. The thunderbolts of Zeus were created, with Arges creating the brightness, Brontes, the thunder and Steropes, the lightning. With the help and the weapons, Zeus and his siblings were ultimately successful in overthrowing the reign of the Titans.

After Zeus came to power there are few tales that tell of what happened to Kronos. 

Some tales tell that he was kept prisoner in Tartarus alongside the majority of other Titans, guarded by his own siblings, the Hecatonchires. Some other tales tell that he was imprisoned alone in the cave of Nyx (night); a few other tales even tell that Kronos was forgiven by Zeus and made the King of the paradise realm of the Elysian Fields.

This redemption is also seen in the fact that Kronos was worshiped on the twelfth of each and every month by the Athenians. This worship came from the association that was made between Kronos and good harvests as seen during the “Golden Age” of his rule. The Romans used Kronos as the model for Saturn, although Saturn has tended to be much more widely worshiped, and perceived as a more forgiving god.

Copyright - Originally Published 21st September 2008

Perseus in Greek Mythology

The mythology of Ancient Greece is primarily based around the deeds of the gods of Mount Olympus. These stories are then intertwined with the exploits of human heroes fighting against man and beast. Perseus was one of the central heroes of Greek mythology and ranks alongside Heracles as one of the most famous characters. The stories of Perseus tell a tale of a life of trial and tribulation, and although the stories are difficult to tie to one timeline, they still make for a fascinating read.

The stories of Perseus start in Argos, where King Acrisius ruled the land. Acrisius with his queen, Eurydice, had only one daughter, Danae, and no son to take over the throne. With no direct male heir, Acrisius wanted to know whether Danae would ever bear him a grandson to rule Argos. To find out what the future held, Acrisius went to the oracle at Delphi. Instead of good news, though, the oracle foretold the king’s own death at the hands of his grandson.

Acrisius was more fearful about meeting his o

Danae and Perseus - John William Waterhouse (1849–1917) - PD-life-70

wn demise than not having an heir to his throne. His daughter was without a suitor, and so Acrisius decided to ensure that this situation would continue. Danae was shut in a tall, inaccessible bronze tower that could not be scaled, and the only door was guarded day and night.

News of the confinement of Danae reached the Olympian gods, and Zeus heard about her beauty. Zeus was always on the look out for beautiful female mortals, and he decided that a visit was in order. When Zeus arrived in Argos, he found that the bronze tower had been made inaccessible to gods. Zeus though was not deterred and so transformed himself into a shower of gold, enabling him to cascade through the tower’s roof.

The result of the meeting of Zeus and Danae resulted in the birth of a son, who was named Perseus. The fact that Danae had given birth to a son could not go unnoticed by Acrisius, and he recognised that only a god could have got his daughter pregnant. Still fearful for his life, Acrisius was also fearful of the wrath of the Olympians if he killed one of their offspring.

Acrisius came up with a plan that would hopefully save him. Danae and Perseus were placed in a wooden chest, which was then set adrift on the open sea. Acrisius believed that there were two possible outcomes: either the chest would sink and his daughter and grandson would drown, or else the chest would drift far away where Perseus could do him no harm.

Zeus did not easily abandon his offspring, and with the assistance of Poseidon, he ensured that the wooden chest is safely transported to the shores of the island of Seriphos. The chest was found by a local fisherman, called Dictys, who was also the brother of Polydectes, the king of Seriphos. Mother and son were taken to Polydectes, who welcomed them into his court. It was there that Perseus grew into manhood.

Over time Polydectes fell in love with the beautiful Danae, but the grown Perseus was very protective of his mother. Polydectes tricked Perseus though into accepting an impossible mission. Polydectes told Perseus that he intended to wed Hippodameia but required an impressive wedding gift. Perseus was of course relieved that Danae was not the intended bride and rashly promised the head of Medusa as a present. It was a promise that Polydectes accepted, believing that Perseus would die during the quest.

Medusa was one of the three Gorgons, who had been cursed by the goddess Athena. Athena had caught the beautiful Medusa and god Poseidon having an affair in one of her temples. Medusa was cursed to have snakes for hair, and eyes that would turn anyone who was caught in their gaze into stone.

Perseus was at a loss to know how to start such a quest as he now faced, but he had not been abandoned by the gods of Olympus. Athena of course was always willing to help those against those she considered to be an enemy. Athena provided Perseus with her reflective shield. Hermes and Hades also aided Perseus in his quest. Hermes provided an adamantine sword and winged sandals, whilst Hades provided his helmet of invisibility. Perseus also acquired a magic wallet to hold the head of Medusa.

Perseus and Andromeda - Pierre Mignard (1612–1695) - PD-art-100

Perseus to start his quest first had to get information from the Graeae, the “three grey women,” additional sisters of Medusa and the Gorgons. The Graeae had but one eye and one tooth between them, so Perseus took the eye and kept it until the Graeae told Perseus everything he required.
With the information obtained, Perseus made his way to Medusa’s cavern on Samos. There he found the stony figures of men and animals that had been caught in the gaze of Medusa. Perseus managed to get close to Medusa by using Athena’s shield as a mirror, therefore avoiding a direct gaze. Medusa was then beheaded with Hermes’ adamantine sword; the decapitated head was then placed into the magic wallet.

The remaining Gorgons, Euryale and Stheino, gave chase to Perseus, but with the assistance of the invisibility caused by Hades’ helmet, and Hermes’ winged sandals he escaped. The adventures of Perseus though were far from over, and in his travels back to Seriphos he happened to stop in Ethiopia. In Ethiopia he found that the kingdom of King Cepheus was being ravaged by a sea creature, the Ceto, as punishment from Poseidon. Queen Cassiopeia had claimed that she was more beautiful than the god’s offspring, the Nereids. To placate the sea monster Cepheus was forced to offer his daughter, Andromeda, as a sacrifice. Thus it was fastened to a rock that Perseus first cast eyes on the beautiful Andromeda. Perseus made use of Medusa’s head as a weapon turning Ceto to stone, setting Andromeda free, and claiming her as his bride.

At the subsequent wedding feast, Perseus was once again forced to use the head of the Gorgon. Phineus, a formed suitor of Andromeda, wanted the princess for himself, he though and his followers were turned to stone by the gaze of the decapitated Medusa.

The magic wallet though seems to have been damaged and, as Perseus and Adnromeda continued their way back to Seriphos, Medusa’s blood leaked out. The drops of bloods landed on the deserts of Northern Africa, creating the poisonous snakes that now inhabit the area. Blood also dripped into the Red Sea where it created the coral found there today.

Perseus Returns - Luca Giordano (1632–1705) - PD-art-100

Eventually though Perseus arrived back at Seriphos, where he found his mother was being abused by Polydectes, either in a forced marriage or in servitude. Perseus made one last use of the head of Medusa, and entering the court of Polydectes turned all those present into stone. Stone boulders remain on the island; these are identified as being the remains of the court’s inhabitants.
With his quest now completed Perseus returned the sandals, sword and helmet to Hermes. The head of Medusa though was given to Athena, who placed it on her own shield to act as a protective element in her future battles.

With one quest over though, the story of Perseus was not at an end. Perseus went on to found the city of Mycenae, and there is some historical evidence to suggest that there was a Greek called Perseus who did just this, although there was probably more to it than the myth about the dropping of his cap on the city site. Perseus and Andromeda made the city there home, although it may have existed before hand. The walls were built up and it became a fortified city on the Peloponnesian peninsula, and one of the most important city states of the whole of Greece, long before Sparta and Athens reached their peaks.

Perseus and Andromeda went on to have seven sons and two daughters. The sons were: Perses, who became ancestor of all Persian emperors; Electryon, grandfather of Hercules; Alcaeus; Heleus; Mestor; Sthenelus; and Cynurus. The two daughters were Gorgophone and Autochthoe.

There was though still the prophecy as given to Perseus’ grandfather, Acrisius. Whether the prophecy was fulfilled or not depends on what version of the story is being told.

In one version of the story, Perseus was competing in the athletic games of Larissa. There he was displaying a new game he had created, quoits, when his grandfather crossed in the path of the quoits, causing his death. A similar tale is told in Argos and Thessaly where Teutamides was throwing funeral games for his father, when Acrisius was killed by a discus thrown by Perseus.

The death of Acrisius would mean that Perseus was to be king of Argos. Perseus though gave the kingdom to Megapenthes, a nephew of Acrisius, whilst Persues became ruler of Tiryns.

A final version though has Perseus killing Acrisius’s brother Proteus, rather than his grandfather. Proteus had sent Acrisius into exile, and it was Perseus who returned Acrisius to the throne.

Time has seen changes made to the story of Perseus though, and in the Renaissance the winged sandals of Hermes were not the method of escape from the Gorgons. The story changed to an escape being made on the back of Perseus, the legendary winged horse. Perseus was the offspring of Medusa, who had sprung from the neck of the Gorgon. This though is in contrast to the classical tales that have Bellerophon as the hero who tamed and rode the winged gorse.

Additionally a widespread tale involves turning the Titan Atlas into stone. A struggle between the hero and the Titan had ensued, where Medusa’s head was used to create the Atlas Mountains. This, though, again cannot work with the classic tales that have Hercules encountering Atlas in his travels. Hercules of course is the great-grandson of Perseus, so Atlas could not have been turned to stone by Perseus.

Copyright - First Published 16th June 2008

The Story of Zeus and Danae

The story of Zeus and Danae is one of the best known love stories from Greek mythology. In itself it is not a major tale, but is used to show the character of Zeus and the outcome of the story impacts on the life of one of the major Greek heroes.

Zeus was the supreme ruler of the Olympian gods, the son of Cronus and Gaea; he had replaced his father following the Titanomachy. Three times married, a large proportion of the stories told about Zeus are not about heroic acts but more about his love life. Though married to the goddess Hera, his third wife, Zeus had any number of affairs with other goddesses and mortal women. The story of Zeus and Danae is the story of one of Zeus’ affairs, although luckily for Danae it was not one that Hera interrupted.

Danae captive in the tower - Joseph Swain (1820–1909) - PD-art-100

Danae was a princess of Argos, the only daughter of king Acrisius and Eurydice. With no direct male heir, Acrisius wanted to know whether his daughter would ever bear him a grandson to rule Argos. To find out what the future held, Acrisius went to an oracle. Instead of good news, though, the oracle foretold the kings own death at the hands of his grandson.

Acrisius was more worried about his own death than not having a male heir. His daughter was without a suitor and so Acrisius decided to keep it that way. Danae was shut in a tall inaccessible bronze tower. The tower could not be scaled and the only door was guarded day and night.

The story of Danae’s confinement reached the gods on Olympus. Zeus, who was always on the look-out for beautiful female mortals, decided to visit Argos to see the confined princess. On arrival in Argos Zeus found that the tower had been inaccessible even to gods. Zeus though was not put off, and so transformed into a shower of gold, so that he could cascade through the roof.

Zeus was struck by the beauty of Danae and promptly impregnated her. The result of this union was that Danae gave birth to a son, called Perseus. Acrisius of course discovers that his daughter has given birth to his grandson. Fearful of his life, he is equally fearful of the wrath of the gods if he directly kills one of their offspring.

Acrisius arrives at a plan to set Danae and Perseus adrift on the sea in a wooden chest. There are two possible results, they may drown, or they may drift far away where they could do no harm to Acrisius.

Danae and Perseus Captured - John William Waterhouse (1849–1917) - PD-art-100

Zeus has not totally abandoned Danae, though. With the assistance of his brother Poseidon, Zeus ensures that the wooded chest is washed ashore on the island of Seriphos. There they were taken care of by the fisherman Dictys, who was the brother of the king of Seriphus, Polydectes.

The story of Danae then drifts into the background, as her son takes prominence. It was Polydectes who set Perseus that impossible task of obtaining the head of Medusa. Polydectes wished to seduce Danae, but realised that Perseus was too protective of his mother to allow this to happen. Thus the king came up with the plan to get rid of Perseus.

Perseus of course was successful in his task. Returning to Seriphus, Perseus found that his mother had been abused by the king and reduced to the role of palace slave. In a rage Perseus then produces the head of Medusa turning Poldectes and all his court into stone.

Whilst the story of Perseus continues, Danae is then ignored in Greek mythology, although she is often credited with founding the city of Ardea in Latium.

The story of Zeus and Danae, is a love or lust story. It shows the ingenuity of the god to enable him to get his wicked way with a mortal. It also displays that Zeus would protect his offspring and mates when he could.

Copyright - First Published 12th March 2008

Poseidon in Greek Mythology

Poseidon, brother to Zeus, and one of the major Olympian gods of Ancient Greece, could be considered simply as an ancient god from a long dead religion, and yet his image, as god of the sea, is still a potent one.

The majority of stories about his birth tell of Poseidon being the son of the Titan’s Cronus and Rhea. This parentage makes him the brother to Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades and Zeus. Upon his birth Poseidon was swallowed by his father. This act was undertaken by Cronus to prevent the completion of a prophecy with stated that one of his offspring would one take dethrone him.

Zeus would have followed Poseidon into the stomach of Cronus, but his mother, Rhea, substituted a stone wrapped in baby clothes. Zeus grew up safely on Crete. When he came of age Zeus returned to the land of Cronus, tricking him into taking a potion that forced the regurgitation of Zeus’ siblings, Poseidon included.

Poseidon's Chariot - Antiquariat Dr. Haack Leipzig - PD-life-100

Less common stories are also told of Poseidon’s birth. In these Poseidon was not swallowed, instead Rhea gave Cronus a horse to swallow, swearing that she had given birth to a colt. Poseidon was sent to Rhodes to be raised by the Telchines.

In either case, Zeus returned and with the help of his siblings waged a ten year war against the Titans, the Titanomachy. Zeus released the Cyclopes and Hecatonchires from Tarterus to aid him in his rebellion. As an act of gratitude the Cyclopes made weapons for the three brothers. Zeus received the thunderbolt, Hades got the Helmet of Darkness and Poseidon was given his Trident.

Zeus and the younger gods were victorious over the Titans, and Zeus banished the majority of the Titans to Tartarus in the deepest reaches of the Underworld. The three brothers then drew lots to see which section of the cosmos they would rule. Zeus took the sky, Poseidon received the sea and Hades was left with the Underworld as his domain. The earth was to be divided amongst all of the gods.
Like his brother, Hades, whilst Poseidon was a god of Mount Olympus he spent much of his time in his domain. Beneath the waves Poseidon resided in a palace made of gems and coral. The palace was said to be in the sea near Aegae, from which he would travel, onboard his chariot.

In the early days of his reign Zeus was faced with issues of remaining in power. One of these rebellions was against the Gigante. One hundred giants formed from the blood of Uranus, they revolted under the influence of Gaea. Gaea was annoyed with Zeus for placing her other offspring, the Titans, in Tarterus. The gods of Olympus eventually defeated the Gigante, with the assistance of Heracles. Poseidon himself defeated Polybotes, one of the Gigante, pursuing the giant across the sea. Once he was caught, Polybotes was buried beneath the rock of Nisyros, forming the tip of the island of Kos.

Poseidon and Amphitrite - Paris Bordone (1500–1571) - PD-art-100

Poseidon himself was involved in an attempted rebellion against Zeus. Poseidon, Hera and Athena planned to incarcerate Zeus. The plan though was halted before it even began. The plotters were scared off when Thetis, Zeus’ first wife, persuaded Briareus to guard her husband. Briareus was one of the three Hecatonchires, and his gigantic stature dissuaded the other gods from attacking their brother.

Poseidon retreated to his watery palace, and like his brother, Hades, tales of his undertakings are fairly rare. Rare at least in comparison with a number of the other Olympian gods. The initial tales of Poseidon relate to disputes with other gods. As the gods had decided that the earth should be jointly ruled, there was arguments as to which cities would belong to which gods.

The first of these disputes was with Helius. The land of Corinth ultimately had to be divided between Poseidon and Helius, the decision being left with Briareus. Poseidon was given the Isthmus of Corinth, whilst Helius received the heights over the city.

The next dispute was with his one time co-conspirator, Hera. This time the patronage of Argos was in question. In this instance though Poseidon received nothing, as three river gods, Asterion, Cephisus and Inachus, decided in favour of Hera. Poseidon, as god of all water, had his revenge, drying up the rivers associated with the river gods.

The most well known dispute occurred between Athena and Poseidon, with the new city in the Attica region. Poseidon was the first to arrive in Attica, but Athena followed shortly afterwards with designs on the city’s patronage. A competition was arranged between the two gods, both provided a gift to the city, the provider of the best would be the city’s god. Poseidon went first and with a blow of his trident on the Acropolis a spring was produced, the water though was salty. Next came Athena who planted an olive tree.

King Cecrops chose the olive tree as the more useful gift for the city, thus deciding the city of Attica became Athena’s. The city became Athens in honour of their patron god, with its inhabitants building the Parthenon as a temple to Athena. Initially Poseidon was enraged, flooding the Attic Plain in revenge, though he refrained from flooding Athens itself. Eventually though Athena and Poseidon put aside their differences, and worked together. Whilst Poseidon was the god of horses, Athena built the first chariot to be coupled to the animals. It was also Athena who built the first ships to sail over Poseidon’s domain. Poseidon quickly became the second god of Athens and duly worshipped.

Poseidon had much in common with his brother, Zeus, in terms of his love life. Poseidon was married to the Oceanid Amphitrite, who in herself was the daughter of Nerues, the Old Man of the Sea. Together they had a son, Triton, a half-man half-fish creature.

Poseidon though had a number of mistresses in addition to his wife. The Gorgon Medusa was turned into the monster by Athena, after Poseidon raped her in Athena’s temple. The result of this intimacy was the birth of Chrysaor and the winged horse Pegasus after Medusa had been decapitated by Perseus.

The mystical horse Arion was also one of Poseidon’s offspring. Demeter, Poseidon’s sister, had changed into a mare to avoid her brother’s attentions. Poseidon though changed himself into a stallion to mate with her.

Not all of Poseidon’s offspring were mythical creatures, as Poseidon was said to be the father heroes, including Theseus. Poseidon played a role in the adventures of his son. The Minotaur of Crete was born as an act of retaliation by Poseidon against King Minos for not sacrificing the Cretan Bull as required.

As previously said tales of adventure concerning Poseidon are few and far between. Troy though does play a central role in a couple. Apollo and Poseidon went to Troy when Laomedon was king of the city. They either went of their own volition or because Zeus ordered them to, depending on the version of the story. A test was made of the king, to see what kind of man he was. The two gods disguised themselves and set to work building fortifications for the city, for which they were promised a reward. Laomedon refused to honour his promises though on the gods’ completion of the walls. As a result Apollo sent a deadly disease into Troy, whilst Poseidon sent a sea monster to attack the city and its inhabitants.

Partially as a result of Laomedon’s actions, Poseidon assisted the Greeks during the Trojan War, fighting on their side on a number of occasions. The Greek Odysseus though quickly made an enemy of the god when he blinded the Cyclops Polyphemus escaping from his cave. Poseidon ensured that the hero’s journey home was as difficult as possible.

Poseidon was slighted by Queen Cassiopeia, when she claimed that she and her daughter, Andromeda, were more beautiful than Poseidon’s Nereids. Vengeance for Poseidon was in the form of another monster, Cetus, sent to ravage the kingdom of Ethiopia. A prophecy was made that Ethiopia could be saved if Andromeda was sacrificed to the monster. Andromeda though was rescued by Perseus before this could happen. Poseidon though decided Cassiopeia could not escape punishment and so set her as a star in the night sky.

Poseidon is often depicted as a mature man holding his trident. Horses were also important to the god, Poseidon is often said to have created horses and taught mankind how to care for them. Whilst he could be beneficial, Poseidon was also known as the Earthshaker, and would cause earthquakes when he was angered.

Poseidon was both feared and worshipped in equal measure. Whilst especially revered in Corinth and the Peloponnesus, temples to Poseidon could be found all over Greece. Perhaps not surprising for a seafaring nation the majority of the temples are found on the coast. Sacrifices normal took the form of black and white bulls, or boars and rams. There is evidence though that horses were thrown into wells in Argolis as a sacrifice. Chariot races would also be held in his honour at Poseidon’s bi-annual Istmian Games.

Poseidon was one of the major Olympian gods, alongside his brothers Zeus and Hades. He is though much better known for his offspring and his affairs than anything else. To a seafaring nation though there was no more important god.

Copyright - First Published 8th March 2008

The Legend of the Minotaur

Despite the passing of thousands of years, the stories of Ancient Greece still manage to captivate readers today. Greek mythology abounds with tales of gods, heroes and mythical creatures, and these stories manage to excite and entertain.

Today many of the characters of Greek mythology are still recognisable today, and whilst the names of gods and heroes are often widely known, it is the appearance of mythical creatures that are arguably most widely recognisable. People can describe the centaur, the half man half horse, but even more famous might be the Minotaur.

The story of the Minotaur begins and ends in Crete

Before becoming king, Minos was in an argument with his brothers about who was to be the next ruler. To aid his case, Minos claimed the backing of the gods; and praying to Poseidon, Minos was rewarded, as the god of the sea sent a sign of his approval.

Theseus and the Minotaur - H.A.Guerber - PD-life-70

This sign took the form of the Cretan Bull, a snow-white animal, which Minos was to sacrifice to Poseidon as a sign of Minos’ fealty. Minos though so admired the Bull, that he sacrificed another animal in its place, either in the belief that Poseidon wouldn’t notice or wouldn’t mind.

This belief was of course badly mistaken. In revenge, Poseidon transposed Minos’ love of the Cretan Bull onto his wife. Minos’ wife, Pasiphae, was cursed to fall in physical love with the bull. Pasiphae had no option other than to give into her unnatural urges, and so Pasiphae asked Daedalus, the legendary inventor and artisan, to assist her.

Daedalus designed and constructed a hollow, wooden cow on wheels. Pasiphae entered it, and the wooden cow was wheeled out onto the meadow where the Cretan Bull grazed. Suffice to say copulation occurred.

After the given time, Pasiphae gave birth to a son who was called Asterion. Asterion means ruler of the stars, a name attributed to the newborn’s grandfather. The child though was no ordinary boy; born as he was with a male body but the head and tail of a bull.

In his early years Asterion was treated as any normal boy, even being nursed by his mother. As time passed Asterion grew and became more ferocious, terrorising the Cretans. It was at this time that Asterion became known as the Minotaur, Minotaur meaning “Bull of Minos”.

Minos, following the advice of the Oracle of Delphi, instructed Daedalus to design a gigantic labyrinth to imprison his son in. The Labyrinth at Knossos was the most complex ever built, an infinite number of passages would cross over each other, whilst there seemed to be no start or end to the maze. It was said that it was so complicated that even Daedalus had trouble getting out of it after he had constructed it.

Thus it was that Asterion spent his delinquent years alone within the giant maze, beneath his father’s palace.

At the same time Minos was in dispute with Athens. Androgeus, another son of Minos, had been killed when a guest of the Athenian court. A war was waged between the two states, a war that the forces of Crete were victorious in.

The Oracle at Delphi proclaimed that a tribute was to be paid to Minos by Athens. The tribute was to be made in the form of human sacrifices. Every nine years, or every year in some variations, seven young men and seven maidens were to be sent to Crete. These youths were locked in the Labyrinth for the Minotaur to devour.

Eighteen years passed, until the third set of sacrifices was to be made. Theseus, a prince of Athens, took the place of one of the youths destined for Crete. Sailing in a ship with a black sail, Theseus promised his distraught father that he would return showing a white sail.

On arrival in Crete, Ariadne, the daughter of King Minos, caught sight of the handsome prince, and promptly fell in love with Theseus. Ariadne realising that Theseus would have to enter the maze, sought to aid him in his quest, and supplied him with a thread and the advice of Daedalus.

On entering the Minotaur’s Labyrinth, Theseus unwound the thread, allowing him to map his route from the maze’s entrance. Eventually, Theseus came upon the sleeping Minotaur, and making use of a sword supplied by the king’s daughter, Theseus slew the sleeping monster. It was then easy to retrace his route out of the maze, rescuing the other intended sacrifices on the way. With the monster dead, Theseus promptly leaves Crete taking Ariadne with him.

King Minos tries to take out some form of revenge on Daedalus for assisting Theseus, and so is locked away in a tower with his son. The tower proves to be no prison for the inventor though, and although his son is killed whilst escaping, Daedalus flies away to safety. Minos, in trying to recapture Daedalus, is murdered in the court of King Cocalus in Camicus, in Sicily.

The story of the Minotaur of course sounds totally made up, but there may be elements of truth in the tale. Some circumstantial evidence suggests that at the time when the island of Crete was the dominant force in the Mediterranean, it could demand tributes from the city states of Greece and other countries. These tributes could well have taken human form. Ceremonies for sacrifice would then be performed by a priest, possibly the son of King Minos, who would be disguised behind the mask of a bull.

The slaying of the Minotaur could also link into the same period, and be a representation of the growing strength of Athens. Once strong enough, Athens would no longer need to pay tribute to Crete.

Much of this is supposition, and not born out with any direct archaeological evidence. In fact, there is no evidence for even the existence of the Labyrinth. The palace of Minos at Knossos has been extensively excavated, with no obvious signs of a maze have been uncovered. This has led some archaeologists to describe the palace itself as a maze, and thus the source of the Labyrinth tales.
The lack of physical evidence for the maze or the monster does not make the story of the Minotaur any less entertaining though, and as a result the story of Theseus and the Minotaur remains popular even today.

Copyright - First Published 7th March 2008

The Cyclopes in Greek Mythology

Despite the passing of thousands of years, the stories of Greek mythology still resonate in the modern consciousness. Ask someone today what a Cyclops is, and most people will describe a giant with a single eye. In its simplest terms, this is exactly right.

The name Cyclops can be roughly translated as “round”, “ring” or “wheel-eyed”, and is an apt description. Greek writers would describe them as strong and stubborn giants, bearing a single round eye in the middle of the forehead. In Greek mythology there are two distinct generations of the Cyclopes, (plural of Cyclops). The oldest of these two generations predates Zeus’ generation of Olympian gods.

Cyclops - Erasmus Francisci zu Nürnberg (Nuremberg), 1627-1680 - PD-life-70

It is the first generation that plays a bigger role in Greek mythology, although it is the second generation that is perhaps better known to the casual reader.

The first Cyclopes were a trio of brothers, Arges, Brontes and Steropes. Sons of Uranus and Gaia, they were siblings to the other giants, the Hecatonchires, “the hundred-handed ones”, and the Titans.
Uranus fearful of the power and strength of his offspring kept them locked up. The Cyclopes and Hecatonchires were imprisoned in Tartarus, the deepest stretches of the Underworld. The Cyclopes, within Tartarus, slowly developed great blacksmithing skills.

When Cronus and the other Titans revolted against their father, the Cyclopes and Hecatonchires were initially released from their imprisonment.

Cronus though was as equally unsure of his position, as Uranus, his father, had been. Cronus, having taken over the position of supreme ruler of the cosmos, was fearful of his siblings’ immense strength, and so after only a short period of freedom, the Cyclopes found themselves once again back in Tartarus.

This time they were not alone, to ensure their confinement, Cronus had them guarded by Campe, a female dragon.

As supreme leader, Cronus was still faced with problems, not least of which was a prophecy that predicted his own downfall. To avoid this fate, Cronus was swallowing his own offspring as soon as they were born. With Rhea Cronus had six children, Demeter, Hestia, Hera, Hades, Poseidon and Zeus. Zeus would have followed the others into the stomach of Cronus but Rhea, with the assistance of Gaea, substituted a stone wrapped in baby clothes for him.

Zeus grew up on Crete before returning to land of Cronus. There with the help of Metis, the offspring of Oceanus, he tricked Cronus into taking a potion that regurgitated Zeus’ siblings. With his siblings by his side, Zeus then led a revolt against Cronus and the other Titans. To aid in his revolt Zeus, released the Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires from Tartarus.

The Cyclopes put their blacksmithing skills to use, providing the weapons needed by Zeus, and his brothers and sisters, to overthrow the Titans.

Zeus was provided with thunderbolts, which were to become a symbol of his power. The thunderbolts were given various properties; Arges provided brightness; Brontes added thunder; whilst lightning was supplied by Steropes. The three Cyclopes also forged Hades’ helmet of darkness, which allowed the wearer the gift of invisibility. Other gods also benefited; Poseidon received his trident; and later Artemis received her bow and arrow of moonlight; and Apollo his bow and arrow of sunrays.
It was Hades wearing his helmet of darkness that eventually ended the Titanomachy, the ten-year rebellion against the Titans. By putting on his helmet, Hades became invisible and managed to slip into the camp of the Titans and destroy their armaments.

The weapons provided by the cyclopes, would have a great impact in later events for the Olympian gods. Hades’ helmet was used by Perseus when he decapitated Medusa, whilst Zeus’ thunderbolts would later be the cause of the Cyclopes’ deaths.

After the Titanomachy had finished, Zeus was in the position of supreme ruler. Grateful for the assistance of the Cyclopes he allowed them to live with the gods on Mount Olympus. There they fashioned further weapons for the gods, also acting as assistants to Hephaestus, the god of smiths. During this time the Cyclopes were also credited with the construction of massive building projects, including the fortifications of Tiryns and Mycenae.

The happy existence of the Cyclopes on Olympus was relatively short-lived though. In a fit of rage, Zeus struck Asclepius down with one of his thunderbolts. This rage was caused due to Asclepius having raised a man from the dead, against the rules of the gods. Asclepius though was the son of Apollo. Apollo, in an act of vengeance struck, the Cyclopes down, blaming them for forging the weapon that killed his son.

Greek mythology then suggests that the ghosts of the giants went to reside in the heart of Mount Etna, an active volcano. Their presence was used to explain the noise and smoke that frequented from the volcano, as the ghosts continued to work their forges.

Polyphemus - Guido Reni (1575–1642)- PD-art-100

The first generation was therefore destroyed without any known offspring. The question is then generated as to their relation the Cyclopes of the second generation. The second generation are said to have the same physical attributes, without the associated blacksmithing skills.

The new Cyclopes were a group of lawless shepherds, raising sheep and goats. They lived in the remote sections of Sicily, although the area is often called Cyclops as well. These Cyclopes are said to be descendents of Poseidon, and would be of absolutely no note if Odysseus, and then later Aeneas, had not encountered one of their number.

The story of this encounter is found in the Homer’s Odyssey. The encounter involves Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon and Thoosa, a nereid (sea-nymph).

Odyesseus and twelve of his shipmates are trapped in Polyphemus’ cave, having feasted on the food found in it. The Cyclops has a taste for human flesh, and eats several of the ships crew. Odysseus realises that he could kill Polyphemus, but they would be unable to move the boulder blocking the cave entrance.

Odysseus therefore gets the Cyclops drunk before taking a spit from the cave’s fire and driving it through Polyphemus’ only eye.

Polyphemus has been tricked into believing that Odysseus’ name is “Nobody” and so he cries for help saying “Nobody is attacking him”. His cries are obviously ignored by his fellow Cyclopes.
The blinded Polyphemus, rolled the boulder away the next morning to allow his flock out to graze. Feeling the backs of his sheep as they pass, he misses Odysseus and the remaining members of his crew, as they were tied to the sheep’s undersides.

Odysseus cannot go without an act of bravado, and so as he sets sail, having taken a part of the Cyclops’ flock, he yells out his own name. As Polyphemus throws rocks at the departing ship, he calls upon Poseidon his father to prevent Odysseus’ return to Ithaca.

The only other mention of the Cyclopes in the Greek myths comes from two poems by Theocritus. Both poems are about Polyphemus as well, showing how indistinct the Cyclopes had become. These poems related the love life of Polyphemus prior to the arrival of Odysseus, and tell of his love for the sea nymph Galatea.

There has been much recent supposition about the origins of the Cyclopes myth. There are two current trains of thought. Smiths were well regarded in ancient times, and would often wear an eye patch over one eye, to prevent the possibility of being blinded by sparks in both eyes. Thus smiths would often be viewed as being one-eyed.

The second train of thought is based on the ancient Greeks uncovering the skulls of prehistoric elephants in Greece. An unknown species, the skull of the elephant would have a single round hole, where the trunk would have been attached. The Greeks could have mistaken it for the skull of a one-eyed giant.

Through Homer’s Odyssey, the tale of Polyphemus has become much more well-known than the tale of Arges, Brontes and Steropes. Yet it can easily be argued that they played a much more pivotal role in Greek mythology.

As yet no reason can be given as to why the Cyclopes suffered a demotion from being the armourers to Zeus, to lawless shepherds. Though the goodness’ of the trio of brothers should outweigh the actions of one.

Copyright - First Published 7th March 2008

The role of the Titans in Greek mythology

In popular Greek mythology the Titans are relegated to the roles of villains, and yet they still play an important role in many of the traditional tales of Ancient Greece.

The Titans were in fact the rulers of the earth and heavens, in a time before the supremacy of the Olympian gods, yet most of them ended up incarcerated in Tartarus.

The story of the Titans begins with the Earth goddess, Gaia. Without a mate Gaia had a son, Uranus (Ouranos).

Uranus took dominion over the sky, and made himself the first ruler of the universe. Uranus and Gaia then became lovers, producing a series of children.

The first offspring were the Hecatonchires, the “hundred-handed ones”, a trio of massive giants. The second set were the Cyclopes, another trio of giants, though not as large as the Hecatonchires, they were easily distinguishable by their single eye set in their foreheads.

Uranus claimed to be aghast at the ugliness of the Hecatonchires and Cyclopes, and hid them away in the deepest reaches of the underworld, imprisoning them in Tartarus. In reality though, Uranus was scared of their great strength, and feared for his own position as supreme ruler. Fear of his offspring though did not stop him having further children, and a third set were born, the Titans.

Kronos and Rhea - Numérisation Google - PD-life-70

Gaia bore Uranus six males Titanes and six female Titanides.

Gaia found it too painful to keep the Cyclopes and Hecatonchires imprisoned deep within her, and so hatched a plan to release them, a plan that would also stop Uranus producing any more children. Only Cronus, her youngest Titan son, was willing to attempt Gaia’s plan.

Cronus waited with an adamantine sickle in hand until Uranus next tried to mate with Gaia. When the sky descended to earth, the male Titans, other than Cronus, held their father down, at which point Cronus castrated Uranus.

There are variations as to whether Uranus died at this point or just withdrew from earth. From the blood spilt though were born the Furies, the Gigantes and the Meliae. The goddess Aphrodite was also born from the sea, as Uranus’ phallic member was disposed of.

Each Titanes then married one of his sisters. The pairings were Cronus and Rhea, Iapetus and Themis, Oceanus and Tethys, Hyperion and Theia, Crius and Mnemosyne, and Coeus and Phoebe. Despite being the youngest, but because of his patricide, Cronus and Rhea became the supreme rulers of the other Elder Gods.

Each of the Elder Gods had their own area of dominion;

Oceanus and Tethys produced the rivers and oceans, and also all of the ocean nymphs. Hyperion was in charge of light, and with Theia, their offspring were Helios, the sun, Selene, the moon, and Eos, the dawn. Coeus was the Titan of Intelligence; Mnemosyne was memory and the mother of the Muses; whilst Themis was in charge of justice, as well as mother to the Fates and Seasons.

The period of time that followed was known as the “Golden Age”, and was a period of harmony and prosperity for man and gods.

Cronus though, was not so different from his father. Like Uranus, he was desperate to keep hold of his power, so he also locked his siblings, the Hecatonchires, Cyclopes and Gigantes in Tatarus.
Cronus was told a prophecy by his mother, that one of his children would take his throne. With Rhea, Cronus had six children, Demeter, Hestia, Hera, Hades, Poseidon and Zeus. As each child was born they were swallowed whole by their, in orderto prevent the prophecy coming true.

Zeus would have followed the others into the stomach of Cronus but Rhea, with the assistance of Gaia, substituted a stone wrapped in baby clothes for him.

Titanomachy - Joachim Wtewael (1566–1638) - PD-art-100

Whilst Cronus’ children were not classed as Titans, the offspring of some of the other Titans became a second generation of Titans. Hyperion’s offspring, Helios, Eos and Selene; Coeus’ daughters, Leto and Asteria; and the sons of Iapetus, Prometheus, Epimetheus, Atlas and Menoetius, were all classed as Titans.

Zeus grew up on Crete before returning to land of Cronus. There with the help of Metis, the offspring of Oceanus, he tricked Cronus into taking a potion that regurgitated Zeus’ siblings. With his siblings by his side, Zeus then led a revolt against Cronus and the other Titans.

A ten year war, known as the Titanomachy, ensued between the Titans and the siblings of Zeus. The Titans were led by Cronus, who was aided by Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, Atlas, Menoetius, the Gigantes, and Campe. Atlas would actually lead on the battlefield, as Cronus lead from afar.
Zeus was supported by the Hecatonchires and Cyclopes, who he released from Tartarus at the request of Gaia. The three Hecatonchires were said to help by hurling mountains, one hundred at a time during the battles.

The three brothers, Zeus, Poseidon and Hades, received weapons from the three Cyclopes to aid in the war. Zeus received the thunderbolt, Hades got the Helmet of Darkness and Poseidon got his Trident. By putting on his helmet, Hades became invisible and managed to slip into the camp of the Titan’s and destroy their armaments.

With the war won, Zeus had to deal with the Titans. The female Titans were not punished as they had remained neutral throughout the war; likewise Oceanus was left alone for the same reason.

Prometheus Chained - Carl Rahl (1812–1865) - PD-art-100

Prometheus and Epimetheus were also allowed to roam free for the aid they had provided to Zeus throughout the war. Zeus was therefore left with those Titans who had fought on Cronus’ side.
Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, Menoetius, and the Gigantes were all sent to the deepest depths of the underworld. Imprisoned in Tartarus, the Hecatonchires though free, stayed as guards over their siblings. In some accounts, Cronus was also imprisoned, though in others he fled after the war; Zeus tracked him down and then killed him with a thunderbolt.

Atlas was singled out for special punishment, due to his role as the leader of the Titans on the battlefield.

The ten year war had taken a toll on the sky, Uranus, and Atlas was charged with holding the heavens aloft for all eternity. Atlas stood alone until his meeting with Heracles.

As one of Heracles’ Twelve Labours, Heracles needed to get the Golden Apples that grew in the garden of Hera. Heracles was advised by Prometheus to send Atlas to retrieve the apples, as the garden was tended by Atlas’ daughter the Hesperides.

To allow this to occur, Heracles offered to hold the heavens. Atlas, though he collected the apples, then saw Heracles as a ready made substitute for himself for eternity, and therefore offered to deliver the apples himself. Heracles saw through the lie, and tricked Atlas into take the heavens again, whilst Heracles adjusted his cloak as padding. Even with this popular story there are different versions, and Heracles is often credited with releasing Atlas; building the Pillars of Heracles to hold the heavens in Atlas’ place.

The majority of the Titans who roamed free, had little influence on the later tales of the Olympian gods. Three though crossed the path of Zeus and suffered.

Prometheus was the wisest of the Titans, and made himself the benefactor and protector of man. Prometheus tricked Zeus into allowing man to keep the best parts of any sacrificed animals. In retribution, Zeus took the gift of fire from mankind; subsequently Prometheus steals fire from Mount Olympus and gives it back to man.

Angered once too often, Zeus punishes Prometheus by chaining him to a rock. Every day an eagle, or vulture, would tear out the Titan’s regnerating liver. There he was to stay until he foretold who would succeed Zeus. Prometheus never had to tell Zeus the answer, though as he was rescued by Heracles.
Prometheus’ brother, Epimetheus, was punished by Zeus for failing to give a positive trait to every animal. His punishment was not so severe as his brother, as his transgression was not so great. He accepted Pandora as his wife, as a gift from Zeus. Ultimately leading to the opening of Pandora’s Box, and the release of evil into the world.

The female Titan, Metis, had helped Zeus in the rescue of his siblings. Metis ended up being the first wife of Zeus, and gave birth to her first child, Athena. A prophecy was made though that Metis’ second child would replace Zeus. To avoid any chance of this happening, Zeus ate her. Though ingested it would be said that Metis would remain the source of Zeus’ wisdom and knowledge in the future.

The Titans were in many ways the original gods, which were relegated by a younger generation of Olympians. The relegation was due in part to growth in power of the Hellenes Greeks, and the subsequent prioritising of their deities. In the same way many female deities, such as Hera, Rhea and Persephone, had been much more powerful before the inception of the Olympic gods.

Copyright - First Published 5th March 2008